Kantian Madness: A Contributing Factor to Systems of Representation and Rationalism

December 2022 · PHIL 3102 Modern Philosophy (Fall 2022)

Abstract

In this paper, I deeply analyze the state of representations in the modern period, and I explain how these representational systems allowed for the search for order as a key to achieving full philosophy. However, I argue that within the search for order, madness occurred, and this madness was the actual key to building civilizations. This is explained using Arthur Schopenhauer's Critique of Kant's Thing-in-itself and Michel Foucault's arguments against systems of representation. I finally construct a name for the madness that results from the search for order: Kantian Madness.

"Madness is a special form of the spirit that clings to all teachings and philosophies."

— Carl Jung

Outline

I. Representations: A Postmodern Critique.

II. Representational Theories: Empiricism, Rationalism, and Kant's Transcendental Idealism

III. Schopenhauer's Critique of The Thing-in-itself.

IV. Kantian Madness: From Chaos To Order.

Representations: A Postmodern Critique

The second law of thermodynamics is formulated by the observation that the entropy of isolated systems left to spontaneous evolution cannot decrease, as they always arrive at a state of thermodynamic equilibrium where the entropy is highest at the given internal energy. In other words, any closed system always tends towards chaos. However, as humans, the desire to know has always dominated us, and through all the disciplines, researchers have aimed toward the unification of everything; either it is a theory of everything or a system of philosophy that retracts the chaotic alignment of the universe and brings it back towards order. One approach of that in the period of modern and scholastic philosophy that begins with the belief in Aristotelian Substances, passing by the Rationalist/Empiricist ideologies and within the representational systems of Kantian Transcendental Idealism. This system resulted in the Kantian understanding of the noumenal realm and the unknowability of the thing-in-itself that made a continuous uproar in the academic discourse in philosophy and made great thinkers like Schopenhauer curious about the nature of things-in-themselves. However, as philosophers have yearned to achieve a system of representation, the postmodern movement, being influenced by Michel Foucault, has validly critiqued the idea of representation and reflected on it, believing madness to be a contributor to the modern condition.

Michel Foucault was a French philosopher who was critical of representation systems in the modern conditions. Specifically, Foucault argued that representations, or the way that individuals and groups are depicted in various forms of media, play a significant role in shaping social norms and power dynamics. One of Foucault's main critiques of representation systems was that they are often biased and exclusionary and serve to reinforce dominant power structures. For example, he argued that representations of marginalized groups in the media are often distorted or biased and serve to perpetuate negative stereotypes and reinforce social inequalities. Foucault also argued that representation systems are often used as a means of control and surveillance and that the way that individuals and groups are depicted in the media can be used to shape public opinion and influence behavior. He believed that representation systems are often used as a tool of power by those in positions of authority and that they can be used to manipulate and control the masses. In addition, Foucault argued that representation systems are often used to create a false sense of unity and consensus and that they can obscure the reality of social conflicts and inequalities. He believed that representations often present a distorted or sanitized version of reality and that they can be used to obscure the true nature of social and political issues. (Foucault 306–307) Foucault's critique of representation systems highlights the ways in which they can be used to shape social norms and power dynamics and the ways in which they can be used as a tool of control and manipulation. His work has had a significant impact on the study of media and communication and continues to be influential in contemporary debates on these issues.

Representational Theories: Empiricism, Rationalism, and Kant's Transcendental Idealism

Among the theories of representation that Foucault critiqued, in the modern period, the two leading theories of knowledge: empirical realism, represented by philosophers like John Locke, and modal rationalism, represented by philosophers like Gottfried Leibniz. Empirical realism held that all knowledge comes from sensory experience and that the mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) upon which experience writes. Modal rationalism, on the other hand, holds that some knowledge is innate and that the mind is pre-equipped with certain concepts and principles that allow it to make sense of the world. Immanuel Kant attempted to reconcile these two theories through his theory of synthetic a priori judgments. According to Kant, there are certain judgments that are both a priori (not derived from experience) and synthetic (combining concepts in a meaningful way). These judgments are not simply tautologies (statements that are necessarily true by definition) like those of modal rationalism, but they also cannot be verified by experience alone like those of empirical realism. Kant argued that these synthetic a priori judgments are made possible by the structure of the human mind itself. He believed that the mind imposes certain categories and concepts onto the raw data of sensory experience, organizing and synthesizing it in a way that allows us to make sense of the world. (Kant 173-180) In this way, Kant's theory combines the empirical and rational approaches to knowledge by acknowledging the importance of both sensory experience and innate mental structures in the process of knowing. It is debatable whether Kant ultimately overcame the impasses between empirical realism and modal rationalism. Some argue that his theory successfully reconciled these two approaches, while others claim that it left unresolved tensions between them. However, Kant's theory of synthetic a priori judgments has had a significant influence on the development of modern philosophy and remains an important part of the philosophical canon.

Moreover, Kant has distinguished between what we can know that exists as a phenomenon and what we cannot know that exists as a noumenon, the thing-in-itself. Immanuel Kant's concept of the thing-in-itself refers to the true nature of objects as they exist independently of our perception of them. According to Kant, we can never directly observe or know the thing-in-itself because it is unknowable and transcendent. Kant argued that our experience of the world is mediated by our senses and the categories of understanding, which organize and structure our experience. These categories include concepts such as causation, substance, and necessity, which allow us to make sense of the world and form judgments about it. However, Kant maintained that these categories are subjective and imposed by the mind rather than being inherent in the objects themselves. This means that the objects we perceive are not the thing-in-itself but rather are representations of the thing-in-itself as filtered through our subjective perception. According to Kant, the thing-in-itself is the true, underlying reality of an object, but it is forever beyond our grasp and understanding. We can only ever know the representations of the thing-in-itself that are mediated by our senses and categories of understanding. (Kant 62-69) Kant's concept of the thing-in-itself has had a significant influence on modern philosophy, particularly in the fields of epistemology and metaphysics. It has been the subject of much debate and criticism and has been variously interpreted and elaborated upon by subsequent philosophers, such as Arthur Schopenhauer.

Schopenhauer's Critique of The Thing-in-itself

Arthur Schopenhauer was a German philosopher who was critical of Immanuel Kant's concept of the thing-in-itself, which refers to the idea that the true nature of objects and phenomena is unknowable to humans. Schopenhauer argued that Kant's concept of the thing in itself was problematic because it relied on a dualistic understanding of reality, in which there was a separation between the phenomenal world, or the world as it appears to humans, and the noumenal world, or the true nature of things. According to Schopenhauer, Kant's distinction between the phenomenal and noumenal worlds was problematic because it relied on the idea that there was a fixed, objective reality that was independent of human perception. Schopenhauer argued that this concept was problematic because it denied the role of human subjectivity and interpretation in shaping our understanding of the world. In addition, Schopenhauer argued that Kant's concept of the thing in itself was based on the idea of a "supersensible" realm that was beyond human comprehension and that this idea was fundamentally flawed. He argued that there was no way to know whether such a realm actually existed and that it was more likely that the concept of the thing in itself was simply a way of avoiding the difficult questions of philosophy. (Schopenhauer 13) Schopenhauer's critique of Kant's concept of the thing in itself highlights the ways in which it relies on a dualistic understanding of reality and denies the role of human subjectivity and interpretation in shaping our understanding of the world.

The previous distinction that Schopenhauer made is an imminent issue that is a result of Kant's thing-in-itself as it makes us now conscious of the moral law ourselves. i.e., the categorical imperatives. The Ability to be able to be conscious of the moral law, a noumenon, can make one think as if human beings as things-in-themselves. This neurotic behavior made us unable to reconcile both ideas, which is what I would like to call from now on the term; Kantian Madness.

Kantian Madness: From Chaos To Order

Neurosis, or the mental and emotional disorder characterized by anxiety, obsessive thoughts, and compulsive behaviors, can be seen as a form of thinking oneself as a "thing-in-itself." This is because individuals with neurosis often become fixated on their own thoughts and behaviors and may become isolated and disconnected from the world around them. In this sense, neurosis can be seen as a form of self-absorption and self-enclosure, in which the individual becomes focused on their own internal states and experiences to the exclusion of everything else. This can lead to a distorted and isolated perspective on the world and can interfere with the individual's ability to engage in moral reasoning and decision-making. Kant's moral philosophy, on the other hand, emphasizes the importance of rational thought and moral decision-making. Kant argued that individuals should act in accordance with the moral law, which he believed was based on reason and the universal principles of justice and fairness. Therefore, while neurosis may be seen as a form of thinking oneself as a "thing in itself," Kant's moral philosophy emphasizes the importance of rational thought and the ability to consider the perspective and well-being of others in moral decision-making. Another way in which this distinction could potentially contribute to neurosis is by leading individuals to question their own perceptions and experiences and to doubt their ability to understand the world. If an individual becomes overly concerned with the limitations of their own perspective and understanding, they may become anxious and obsessive, which could lead to neurotic behaviors. It is important to note that there are many factors that can contribute to neurosis and that Kant's distinction between the phenomenal and noumenal worlds is just one potential factor. Neurosis is a complex and multifaceted disorder that can be influenced by a range of psychological, social, and environmental factors.

However, this neurotic madness is, in my opinion, the ultimate weapon that humans had in constructing civilizations, not the order that was sought by modern philosophers. In his book "Madness and Civilization," Michel Foucault explores the history of madness and the way it has been perceived and treated in Western society. According to Foucault, the nature of madness has undergone significant changes throughout history and has been shaped by cultural and social forces. Foucault argues that prior to the 18th century, madness was seen as a divine or supernatural phenomenon and was often associated with religious or mystical experiences. However, with the emergence of the modern concept of psychiatry and the rise of the asylum system, madness came to be seen as a medical issue that required institutionalization and treatment. Foucault contends that the modern conception of madness as a medical issue was shaped by a number of social and cultural factors, including the rise of reason and science, the growth of urbanization and industrialization, and the emergence of new forms of social control. He argues that the asylum system, which emerged in the 18th and 19th centuries, was part of a larger system of social control that sought to regulate and manage the behavior of individuals deemed to be "abnormal" or "deviant." Foucault also contends that the modern conception of madness has been shaped by power dynamics and social hierarchies. He argues that the way in which madness is perceived and treated is influenced by the social and economic status of the individual and that those who are deemed mad are often marginalized and excluded from mainstream society. Overall, Foucault's account of the nature of madness in "Madness and Civilization" highlights the ways in which it has been shaped by cultural and social forces and the ways in which it has been used as a tool of social control. For throughout history, madness and thinking of oneself as a thing-in-itself has been the greatest tool that made humans progress. For by seeking order, one may find madness and realize godhood.